肥胖與其衍生之相關代謝性疾病為全球重大的公共衛生議題。至今，市面上充斥許多體重管理的膳食補充品，而難消化性麥芽糊精 (又稱玉米來源可溶性纖維) 、白腎豆抽出物與藤黃果抽出物，為近年來被廣泛應用於體重控制的膳食補充品，但其三者的加乘後效果如何，尚未明瞭。本研究主要探討飲食難消化性麥芽糊精、白腎豆抽出物與藤黃果抽出物 (以上稱為難消化性麥芽糊精混合物) 對於高脂飲食誘發大鼠肥胖其血脂與脂肪組織之影響。研究模式以雄性Sprague-Dawley (SD) 品系大白鼠進行，利用高脂飲食 (10 % butter + 0.3% cholesterol ) 誘發肥胖發生，先於誘導期分成兩組：(1) 正常飲食組 (Normal control diet, NC )，(2) 高脂飲食組 (High fat diet, HF )，餵食六週後成功誘導肥胖，再次進行實驗分組，共分為三組：(1)正常飲食組 (2) 高脂飲食組 (3) 高脂飲食添加難消化性麥芽糊精混合物組 (High fat diet + resistant maltodextrins complex, S)。實驗共進行十二週，飼養時期間大鼠採自由飲食。實驗結果顯示，攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物組別，能顯著降低攝食量、減少體重增加以及脂肪組織重量。在血漿分析方面，攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物能降低極低密度脂蛋白膽固醇與低密度脂蛋白膽固醇總和 (VLDL-C + LDL-C)，並顯著降低胰島素與HOMA-IR。此外，攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物組能抑制小腸 lactase 與 sucrase 活性。在脂質方面，攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物可以顯著減少肝臟以及腎周脂肪三酸甘油酯含量，並增加脂肪組織中HSL (hormone sensitive lipase) 活性，提升脂肪組織脂解速率。此外糞便脂質結果顯示，攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物能顯著增加糞便中三酸甘油酯與膽固醇的排泄量。綜合以上結果，推測難消化性麥芽糊精混合物可能抑制腸道對醣類的吸收，降低能量的攝取，並藉由提升HSL活性達到減少脂肪囤積，亦可增加糞便中三酸甘油酯與膽固醇的排出量，減少脂質於組織中的含量，因此難消化性麥芽糊精混合物具有改善肥胖及相關代謝疾病之潛力。

Obesity and associated metabolic disorders are major public health issues around the world. Today, there are numerous dietary supplements for weight management, in which resistant maltodextrin (also known as soluble corn fiber), white kidney bean extract and garcinia cambogia extract have been widely used. Nevertheless, the synergy effect of the three substances remains unclear. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate the effects of the combination of resistant maltodextrin, white kidney bean extract and garcinia cambogia extract (referred to as the resistant maltodextrin complex) on blood lipids and adipose tissue in rats with obesity induced by a high fat diet. The research model was described as follows. Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were put on a high fat diet (10 % butter + 0.3% cholesterol) to induce obesity. In the induction period, the rats were first divided into two groups: (1) normal diet control (NC) and (2) high fat diet (HF). After feeding for six weeks, obesity was successfully induced and the rats were re-divided into three groups: (1) NC, (2) HF and (3) high fat diet + resistant maltodextrin complex (S), for an experiment, which lasted 12 weeks. During the feeding period, the rats were on free diet. The experimental results showed significantly reduced food consumptions and increased losses of body weight and adipose tissue weight in the S group. A blood plasma analysis further showed the resistant maltodextrin complex was able to reduce the sum of very low density lipoprotein and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C + LDL-C) and significantly lowered the levels of insulin and HOMA-IR. Furthermore, it was able to suppress the activity of lactase and sucrase in the small intestine. In terms of lipids, it was able to significantly reduce the levels of triglycerides (TGs) in the liver and perirenal fat and enhance the activity of HSL (hormone sensitive lipase) as well as accelerate lipolysis in fatty tissue. In addition, an analysis of fecal lipids showed it was able to significantly increase the amounts of TGs and cholesterol excreted together with feces. To sum up the aforementioned results, it is inferred that the resistant maltodextrin complex may be able to suppress absorption of carbohydrates in the intestines for less energy absorption, enable less fat accumulation through enhanced HSL activity and reduce the lipid content in tissue by increasing the amounts of TGs and cholesterol excreted together with feces. Therefore, the resistant maltodextrin complex has the potential to make improvements for obesity and associated metabolic disorders.

目錄
壹、 前言 1
貳、 文獻整理 3
一、肥胖症 (obesity) 3
1. 肥胖症的現況與定義 3
2. 肥胖與脂肪組織之關聯性 4
二、高脂飲食 5
1. 定義 5
2. 高膽固醇飲食對脂質代謝之影響 5
3. 高飽和脂肪飲食對脂質代謝的影響 7
4. 脂質代謝相關酵素 9
三、膳食纖維介紹 9
1. 定義 9
2. 膳食纖維對脂質代謝的影響 9
3. 膳食纖維對醣代謝的影響 10
四、難消化性麥芽糊精 (resistant maltodextrins, Fibersol-2) 10
1. 難消化性麥芽糊精基本特性 10
2. 難消化性麥芽糊精對於脂質代謝的影響 11
3. 難消化性麥芽糊精對於醣代謝的影響 11
4. 難消化性麥芽糊精對於代謝症候群的影響 12
5. 難消化性麥芽糊精對於腸道的影響 12
6. 難消化性麥芽糊精的安全性 12
五、白腎豆抽出物 (Starch Neutrlizer, Phase 2) 12
1. 白腎豆抽出物 Phase 2的介紹 12
2. 白腎豆抽出物作用機制 13
3. Phase 2的基本特性 13
4. Phase 2對於體重的影響 14
5. Phase 2對於脂質代謝的影響 14
6. Phase 2對於醣代謝的影響 14
7. Phase 2對於胃腸道的影響 14
8. Phase 2的安全性 15
六、藤黃果抽出物 (含Hydroxy citric acid, HCA ) 15
1. 藤黃果抽出物的介紹 15
2. 羥基檸檬酸 (Hydroxy citric acid, HCA ) 的作用機制 16
3. 藤黃果抽出物對於脂質代謝的影響 16
4. 藤黃果抽出物對於醣代謝的影響 17
5. 藤黃果抽出物的安全性 17
參、 實驗設計 18
1. 實驗動機與目的 18
2. 實驗流程 19
肆、 實驗材料 21
1. 實驗動物 21
2. 實驗分組 21
3. 飼料配方 22
4. 難消化性麥芽糊精混合物配方 22
5. 動物飼養與樣品收集 23
6. 實驗飼料 23
7. 難消化性麥芽糊精混合物 23
8. 實驗儀器 23
伍、 實驗方法 25
1. 血漿分析 25
2. 肝臟分析 28
3. 脂肪組織 28
4. 小腸黏膜分析 29
5. 糞便分析 30
6. 統計分析 30
陸、 結果 31
柒、 討論 34
捌、 結論 41
玖、 參考文獻 42

圖目錄
圖一、實驗期間大白鼠每週體重變化 53

圖二、餵食不同實驗飼料6週後，大白鼠腎周圍脂肪中三酸甘油酯含量之影響 54

圖三、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠小腸雙糖酶酵素活性之影響 55

圖四、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠腎周圍脂肪組織脂解作用之影響 56

表目錄
表一、實驗飼料組成 57

表二、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠體重及臟器重量之影響
. 58

表三、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠攝食量之影響 59

表四、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠血脂之影響 60

表五、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠血漿 Glucose、insulin 及 HOMA-IR 指標之影響 61

表六、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠AST、ALT和 Creatinine 之影響 62

表七、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠肝臟脂質含量. 63

表八、攝取難消化性麥芽糊精混合物六週後，大白鼠糞便重量、三酸甘油酯和總膽固醇之影響. 64

玖、 參考文獻
范建高，曾文德，2005。脂肪性肝病。人民衛生出版社。中國。北京。
曾憲鵬，2009 高與低分子量幾丁聚醣隊第二型糖尿病大白鼠醣代謝和脂質代謝脂影響。國立臺灣海洋大學食品科學系碩士論文。基隆。臺灣
江玅逾，2011。菊糖與難消化性麥芽糊精對高果糖誘導代謝症候群大白鼠醣代謝及脂質代謝之影響。國立臺灣海洋大學食品科學系碩士論文。基隆。臺灣
楊俊翔，2013。難消化性麥芽糊精與白腎豆萃取物對高之飲食大白鼠糖類與之質代謝之影響。國立臺灣海洋大學食品科學系碩士論文。
衛生福利部，2002。成人健康體位標準。臺北。臺灣。
衛生福利部，2003。高血脂防治手冊。臺北。台灣。
衛生福利部，2015。民國104年國人十大死因統計。臺北。臺灣。
衛生福利部，2015A。臺灣地區國民營養健康狀況變遷調查。臺北。臺灣。
衛生福利部，2015B。臺灣地區食品營養成分資料庫 (新版)。臺北。臺灣。
Asghar, M., Monjok, E., Kouamou, G., Ohia, S. E., Bagchi, D. and Lokhandwala, M. F. (2007) Super CitriMax (HCA-SX) attenuates increases in oxidative stress, inflammation, insulin resistance, and body weight in developing obese Zucker rats. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 304: 93-99.
Anderson, J. W. and Akanji, A. O. (1991) Dietary fiber—an overview. Diabetes Care, 14: 1126-1131.
Anderson, J. W., Jones, A. E. and Riddell-Mason, S. (1994) Ten different dietary fibers have significantly different effects on serum and liver lipids of cholesterol-fed rats. The Journal of Nutrition, 124: 78-83.
Anderson, J. W., Gustafson, N., Bryant, C. and Tietyen-Clark, J. (1987) Dietary fiber and diabetes: a comprehensive review and practical application. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 87: 1189-1197.
Barrett, M. L. and Udani, J. K. (2011) A proprietary alpha-amylase inhibitor from white bean (Phaseolus vulgaris): a review of clinical studies on weight loss and glycemic control. Nutrition Journal, 10: 10-1186.
Berger, J. J. and Barnard, R. J. (1999) Effect of diet on fat cell size and hormone-sensitive lipase activity. Journal of Applied Physiology, 87: 227-232.
Birketvedt, G. S., Travis, A., Langbakk, B., and Florholmen, J. R. (2002). Dietary supplementation with bean extract improves lipid profile in overweight and obese subjects. Nutrition, 18:729-733.
Brown, M. S. and Goldstein, J. L. (1986) A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis. Science, 232: 34-47.
Brunengraber, H. and Lowenstein, J. M. (1973) Effect of (−)-hydroxycitrate on ethanol metabolism. FEBS Letters, 36: 130-132.
Buettner, R., Schölmerich, J. and Bollheimer, L. C. (2007) High‐fat diets: modeling the metabolic disorders of human obesity in rodents. Obesity, 15: 798-808.
Buck, A. W. (2012). Resistant Maltodextrin Overview. Dietary Fiber and Health, 279.
Carlson, S. E. and Goldfarb, S. (1977) A sensitive enzymatic method for determination of free and esterified tissue cholesterol. Clin Chim Acta 79: 575-582.
Carmen, G. Y. and Victor, S. M. (2006) Signalling mechanisms regulating lipolysis. Cell Signal 18: 401-408.
Caro, J. F., Dohm, L. G., Pories, W. J. and Sinha, M. K. (1989) Cellular alterations in liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue responsible for insulin resistance in obesity and type II diabetes. Diabetes Metab Rev 5: 665-689.
Carruthers, M., Trinick, T. R, Jankowska, E. and Traish, A. M. (2008) Are the adverse effects of glitazones linked to induced testosterone deficiency Cardiovasc Diabetol 7: 30.
Celleno, L., Tolaini, M. V., D'Amore, A., Perricone, N. V. and Preuss, H. G. (2007) A Dietary supplement containing standardized Phaseolus vulgaris extract influences body composition of overweight men and women. International Journal of Medical Sciences, 4: 45.
Chancharme, L., Therond, P., Nigon F., Zarev, S., Mallet, A., Bruckert, E. and Chapman, M. J. (2002) LDL particle subclasses in hypercholesterolemia. Molecular determinants of reduced lipid hydroperoxide stability. Journal of Lipid Research 43: 453-462.
Chawla, R. and Patil, G. R. (2010) Soluble dietary fiber. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 9: 178-196.
Chandalia, M., Garg, A., Lutjohann, D., von Bergmann, K., Grundy, S. M. and Brinkley, L. J. (2000) Beneficial effects of high dietary fiber intake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine, 342: 1392-1398.
Chen, W. J. L., Anderson, J. W. and Jennings, D. (1984) Propionate may mediate the hypocholesterolemic effects of certain soluble plant fibers in cholesterol-fed rats. Experimental Biology and Medicine, 175: 215-218.
Chen Y. D., Risser T. R., Cully M. and Reaven G. M. (1979) Is the hypertriglyceridemia associated with insulin deficiency caused by decreased lipoprotein lipase activity? Diabetes 28: 893-898.
Chu, H.-F., Pan, M.-H., Ho, C.-T., Tseng, Y.-H., Wang, W. W.-L., & Chau, C.-F. (2014). Variations in the Efficacy of Resistant Maltodextrin on Body Fat Reduction in Rats Fed Different High-Fat Models. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62: 192-197.
Cockcroft, D. W. and Gault, M. H. (1976) Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron, 16: 31-41.
Cruz, W. S., Kwon, G., Marshall, C. A., McDaniel, M. L. and Semenkovich, C. F. (2001) Glucose and insulin stimulate heparin-releasable lipoprotein lipase activity in mouse islets and INS-1 cells. A potential link between insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 276: 12162-12168.
Dahlqvist, A. (1986) Assay of intestinal disacchardases. Analytical Biochemistry 22: 99-107.
Darlington, G. J., Ross S. E. and MacDougald, O. A. (1998) The role of C/EBP genes in adipocyte differentiation. Journal of Biological Chemistry 273: 30057-30060.
Downs, B. W., Bagchi, M., Subbaraju, G. V., Shara, M. A., Preuss, H. G. and Bagchi, D. (2005) Bioefficacy of a novel calcium–potassium salt of (−)-hydroxycitric acid. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 579: 149-162.
Duvnjak, M., Lerotić, I., Baršić, N., Tomašić, V., Virović Jukić, L., abd Velagić, V. (2007). Pathogenesis and management issues for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. World journal of gastroenterology, 13: 4539-4550.
Erner, S. and Meiss, D. (2003) Thera-Slim for Weight Loss: A randomized double-blind placebo controlled study. Unpublished internal report, Pharmachem Laboratories, Inc, Kearny, NJ.
Fastinger, N. D., Karr-Lilienthal, L. K., Spears, J. K., Swanson, K. S., Zinn, K. E., Nava, G. M. and Fahey Jr, G. C. (2008) A novel resistant maltodextrin alters gastrointestinal tolerance factors, fecal characteristics, and fecal microbiota in healthy adult humans. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 27: 356-366.
Faust, I. M., Miller, W. H., Sclafani, A., Aravich, P. F., Triscari J. and Sullivan A. C. (1984) Diet-dependent hyperplastic growth of adipose tissue in hypothalamic obese rats. The American journal of physiology 247: 1038-1046.
Fernandez, M. L., Sun, D. M., Tosca, M. A. and McNamara, D. J. (1994) Citrus pectin and cholesterol interact to regulate hepatic cholesterol homeostasis and lipoprotein metabolism: a dose-response study in guinea pigs. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59: 869-878.
Fisher, R. M., Coppack, S. W., Humphreys, S. M., Gibbons, G. F. and Frayn, K. N. (1995) Human triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein subfractions as substrates for lipoprotein lipase. Clin Chim Acta 236: 7-17.
Folch, J., Lees, M. and Sloane Stanley G. H. (1957) A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissues. The Journal of Biological Chemisnty 226: 497-509.
Frost, G., Brynes, A., Dhillo, W., Bloom, S. and McBurney, M. (2003) The effects of fiber enrichment of pasta and fat content on gastric emptying, GLP-1, glucose, and insulin responses to a meal. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57: 293-298.
Fungwe, T. V., Cagen, L., Wilcox, H. G. and Heimberg, M. (1992) Regulation of hepatic secretion of very low density lipoprotein by dietary cholesterol. Journal of Lipid Research 33: 179-191.
Fungwe, T. V., Cagen, L. M., Cook, G. A., Wilcox, H. G., and Heimberg, M. (1993) Dietary cholesterol stimulates hepatic biosynthesis of triglyceride and reduces oxidation of fatty acids in the rat. Journal of Lipid Research, 34: 933-941.
Gordon, D. T. and Okuma, K. (2002) Determination of total dietary fiber in selected foods containing resistant maltodextrin by enzymatic-gravimetric method and liquid chromatography: collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International, 85: 435-444.
Gordon, D. (2007) The effects of resistant maltodextrin on blood glucose, insulin and triacylglyceride levels, and fat accumulation after meal feeding in humans. Dietary Fibre Components and Functions, 305-322.
Goodridge, A. G. (1972) Regulation of the activity of acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase by palmitoyl coenzyme A and citrate. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 247: 6946-6952.
Gouveia, N. M., Alves, F. V., Furtado, F. B., Scherer, D. L., Mundim, A. V. and Espindola, F. S. (2014) An In Vitro and In Vivo Study of the α-Amylase Activity of Phaseolamin. Journal of Medicinal Food, 17: 915-920.
Grabitske, H. A. and Slavin, J. L. (2008). Low-digestible carbohydrates in practice. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108: 1677-1681.
Hashizume, C., Kishimoto, Y., Kanahori, S., Yamamoto, T., Okuma, K. and Yamamoto, K. (2012) Improvement effect of resistant maltodextrin in humans with metabolic syndrome by continuous administration. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 58: 423-430.
Hoffler, U., Hobbie, K., Wilson, R., Bai, R., Rahman, A., Malarkey, D.,and Ghanayem, B. I. (2009). Diet-induced obesity is associated with hyperleptinemia, hyperinsulinemia, hepatic steatosis, and glomerulopathy in C57Bl/6J mice. Endocrine, 36:311-325.
Holm, C. (2003) Molecular mechanisms regulating hormone-sensitive lipase and lipolysis. Biochemical Society Transactions,31: 1120-1124.
Hopewell, R., Yeater, R. and Ullrich, I. (1992) Soluble fiber: effect on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Progress in Food and Nutrition Science, 17: 159-182.
Iwasaki, T., Takahashi, S., Takahashi, M., Zenimaru, Y., Kujiraoka, T., Ishihara, M., Nagano, M., Suzuki, J., Miyamori, I., Naiki, H., Saka,i J., Fujino, T, Miller, N. E, Yamamoto, T. T. and Hattori, H. (2005) Deficiency of the very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) receptors in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: insulin dependency of the VLDL receptor. Endocrinology, 146: 3286-3294.
Jain, N. K., Boivin, M., Zinsmeister, A. R., Brown, M. L., Malagelada, J. R. and DiMagno, E. P. (1989) Effect of ileal perfusion of carbohydrates and amylase inhibitor on gastrointestinal hormones and emptying. Gastroenterology, 96: 377-87.
James, W. (2008) The fundamental drivers of the obesity epidemic. Obesity reviews, 9: 6-13.
Jena, B., Jayaprakasha, G., Singh, R. and Sakariah, K. (2002) Chemistry and biochemistry of (-)-hydroxycitric acid from Garcinia. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50: 10-22.
Jocken, J. W., Langin, D., Smit, E., Saris, W. H., Valle, C., Hul, G. B.and Blaak, E. E. (2007) Adipose triglyceride lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase protein expression is decreased in the obese insulin-resistant state. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 92: 2292-2299.
Kataoka, K., and DiMagno, E. P. (1999). Effect of prolonged intraluminal α-amylase inhibition on eating, weight, and the small intestine of rats. Nutrition, 15(2), 123-129.
Kay, R., and Strasberg, S. (1978) Origin, chemistry, physiological effects and clinical importance of dietary fibre. Clinical and investigative medicine. Médecine Elinique et Experimentale, 1: 9.
Kim, Y. J., Kim, K. Y., Kim, M. S., Lee, J. H., Lee, K. P.and Park, T. (2008) A mixture of the aqueous extract of Garcinia cambogia, soy peptide and L-carnitine reduces the accumulation of visceral fat mass in rats rendered obese by a high fat diet. Genes and Nutrition, 2: 353-358.
Kishimoto, Y., Oga, H., Tagami, H. and Okuma, K. (2007) Suppressive effect of resistant maltodextrin on postprandial blood triacylglycerol elevation. European Journal of Nutrition, 46: 133-138.
Kishimoto, Y., Wankabayashi, S. and Takeda, H. (1995) Hypocholesterolemic effect of dietary fiber: relation to intestinal fermentation and bile acid excretion. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 41: 151-161.
Kishimoto, Y., Kanahori, S., SAkANO, K., and Ebihara, S. (2013). The maximum single dose of resistant maltodextrin that does not cause diarrhea in humans. Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology, 59:352-357.
Kishimoto, Y., Yoshikawa, Y., Miyazato, S., Oga, H., Yamada, T., Tagami, H. and Yamamoto, K. (2009). Effect of resistant maltodextrin on digestion and absorption of lipids. Journal of Health Science, 55:838-844.
Kosaka, S., Takahashi, S., Masamura, K., Kanehara, H., Sakai, J., Tohda, G., Okada, E., Oida, K., Iwasaki, T., Hattori H., Kodama, T., Yamamoto, T. and Miyamori, I. (2001) Evidence of macrophage foam cell formation by very low-density lipoprotein receptor: interferon-gamma inhibition of very low-density lipoprotein receptor expression and foam cell formation in macrophages. Circulation 103: 1142-1147.
Kusunoki, M., Hara, T., Tsutsumi, K., Nakamura, T., Miyata, T., Sakakibara, F. and Storlien, L. H. (2000) The lipoprotein lipase activator, NO-1886, suppresses fat accumulation and insulin resistance in rats fed a high-fat diet. Diabetologia, 43: 875-880.
Lau, D. C., Douketis, J. D., Morrison, K. M., Hramiak, I. M., Sharma, A. M. and Ur, E. (2007) Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children [summary]. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 176: S1-S13.
Layer, P., Zinsmeister, A. R. and DiMagno, E. P. (1986) Effects ofdecreasing intraluminal amylase activity on starch digestion and postprandial gastrointestinal function in humans. Gastroenterology, 91: 41-48.
Linder, M. C. (1985) Nutrition and metabolism of carbohydrates.
Lin, E. C., Fernandez, M. L. and McNamara, D. J. (1992) Dietary fat type and cholesterol quantity interact to affect cholesterol metabolism in guinea pigs. Journal of Nutrition 122: 2019-2029.
Lundman, P., Boquist, S., Samnegård, A., Bennermo, M., Held, C. and Ericsson, C.G., Tornvall, P. (2007) A high-fat meal is accompanied by increased plasma interleukin-6 concentrations. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 17: 195-202.
Marshall, J. J. and Lauda, C. M. (1975). Purification and properties of phaseolamin, an inhibitor of alpha-amylase, from the kidney bean, Phaseolus vulgaris. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 250: 8030-8037.
Mcintosh, M. and Miller, C. (2001) A diet containing food rich in soluble and insoluble fiber improves glycemic control and reduces hyperlipidemia among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutrition Reviews, 59: 52-55.
Miyazato, S., Nakagawa, C., Kishimoto, Y., Tagami, H. and Hara, H. (2010). Promotive effects of resistant maltodextrin on apparent absorption of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in rats. European journal of nutrition, 49: 165-171.
Mizushima, N., Chiba, Y., Katsuyama, S., Daigo, Y. and Kobayashi, C. (1999) Effect of indigestible dextrin-containing soft drink on blood glucose levels in healthy human subjects. Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences, 2: 17-23.
Mokdad, A. H., Ford, E. S., Bowman, B. A., Dietz, W. H., Vinicor, F., Bales, V.S. and Marks, J. S. (2003) Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289: 76-79.
Nicolosi, R., Hughes, D. and Bechtel, D. (2007) Evaluation of the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status of Phase 2® white bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) extract. Bridgewater, NJ, Cantox Health Sciences International.
Niemeier, A., Gafvels, M., Heeren, J., Meyer, N., Angelin, B., and Beisiegel, U. (1996) VLDL receptor mediates the uptake of human chylomicron remnants in vitro. Journal of Lipid Research, 37: 1733-1742.
Nomura, M., Nakajima, Y., Abe, H. (1992) Effects of long-term administration of indigestible dextrin as soluble dietary fiber on lipid and glucose metabolism. Journal of Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science (Japan).
Numa, S., Ringelmann, E. and Lynen, F. (1965) On inhibition of acetyl-CoA-carboxylase by fatty acid-coenzyme A compounds. Biochemishe Zeitschfift, 343: 243-257.
Obiro, W. C., Zhang, T. and Jiang, B. (2008) The nutraceutical role of the Phaseolus vulgaris α-amylase inhibitor. British Bournal of Nutrition, 100: 1-12.
Ohia, S. E., Opere, C. A., LeDay, A. M., Bagchi, M., Bagchi, D. and Stohs, S. J. (2002) Safety and mechanism of appetite suppression by a novel hydroxycitric acid extract (HCA-SX). Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 238: 89-103.
Ohkuma, K., Matsuda, I., Katta, Y. and Hanno, Y. (1990) Pyrolysis of starch and its digestibility by enzymes—characterization of indigestible dextrin. Denpun Kagaku, 37: 107-114.
Ohkuma, K. and Matsuda, I. (2002) Indigestible fractions of starch hydrolysates and their determination method. Journal of Applied Glycoscience 49:479-486.
Osorio, L. and Gamboa, J. (2005) Random multicenter evaluation to test the efficacy of Phaseolus vulgaris (Precarb) in obese and overweight individuals: Internal Report.
Preuss, H. G., Rao, C. V., Garis, R., Bramble, J. D., Ohia, S. E., Bagchi, M., and Bagchi, D. (2003). An overview of the safety and efficacy of a novel, natural (-)-hydroxycitric acid extract (HCA-SX) for weight management. Journal of medicine, 35; 33-48.
Preuss, H. G., Bagchi, D., Bagchi, M., Rao, C. S., Satyanarayana, S. and Dey, D. K. (2004) Efficacy of a novel, natural extract of (–)-hydroxycitric acid (HCA-SX) and a combination of HCA-SX, niacin-bound chromium and Gymnema sylvestre extract in weight management in human volunteers: A pilot study. Nutrition Research, 24: 45-58.
Prosky, L., Asp, N. G., Schweizer, T., DeVries, J. and Furda, I. (1987) Determination of insoluble, soluble, and total dietary fiber in foods and food products: interlaboratory study. Journal Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 71: 1017-1023.
Pusztai, A., Grant, G., Duguid, T. and Brown, D. S. (1995). Inhibition of starch digestion by alpha-amylase inhibitor reduces the efficiency of utilization of dietary proteins and lipids and retards the growth of rats. The Journal of nutrition, 125: 1554.
Ramos, R., Saenz, J. and Aguilar, R. (1995) Extract of Garcinia cambogia in controlling obesity. Investigacion Medica Internacional, 22: 97-100.
Roberfroid, M. (1993) Dietary fiber, inulin, and oligofructose: a review comparing their physiological effects. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 33: 103-148.
Roberts, C. K., Barnard, R. J., Liang, K. H. and Vaziri, N. D. (2002). Effect of diet on adipose tissue and skeletal muscle VLDL receptor and LPL: implications for obesity and hyperlipidemia. Atherosclerosis, 161:133-141.
Rolls, B. J. (2000) The role of energy density in the overconsumption of fat. The Journal of Nutrition, 130: 268-271.
Rolls, B. J., Bell, E. A., Castellanos, V. H., Chow, M., Pelkman, C. L. and Thorwart, M. L. (1999) Energy density but not fat content of foods affected energy intake in lean and obese women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69: 863-871.
Quintao, E. C. and Sperotto, G. (1987) The role of dietary cholesterol in the regulation of human body cholesterol metabolism. Journal of Lipid Research 22: 173-188.
Samuelson, G., Bratteby, L. E., Mohsen, R. and Vessby, B. (2001) Dietary fat intake in healthy adolescents: inverse relationships between the estimated intake of saturated fatty acids and serum cholesterol. British Journal of Nutrition, 85: 333-341.
Saito, M., Ueno, M., Ogino, S., Kubo, K., Nagata, J. and Takeuchi, M. (2005). High dose of Garcinia cambogia is effective in suppressing fat accumulation in developing male Zucker obese rats, but highly toxic to the testis. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 43: 411-419.
Satouchi, M., Wakabayashi, S., Ohkuma, K., Fujiwara, K. and Matsuoka, A. (1993) Effects of indigestible dextrin on bowel movements. Japanese Journal of Nutrition, 51: 31-37.
Sell, H., Berger, J. P, Samson, P., Castriota, G., Lalonde, J., Deshaies, Y. and Richard, D. (2004) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonism increases the capacity for sympathetically mediated thermogenesis in lean and ob/ob mice. Endocrinology 145: 3925-3934.
Seo, T., Qi, K., Chang, C., Liu, Y., Worgall, T. S., Ramakrishnan, R. and Deckelbaum, R. J. (2005) Saturated fat–rich diet enhances selective uptake of LDL cholesteryl esters in the arterial wall. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 115: 2214-2222.
Sessions, V. A. and Salter, A. M. (1994) The effects of different dietary fats and cholesterol on serum lipoprotein concentrations in hamsters. Biochim Biophys Acta 1211: 207-214.
Shils, M. E. and Shike, M. (2006) Modern nutrition in health and disease: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Shioda, N., Shimizu, M., Shimizu, Y., Ono, K., Sawanoi, T., Morimatsu, F. and Yamada, R. (2001) Effects of yogurt drink containing indigestible dextrin on postprandial blood glucose levels in Japanese healthy volunteers. Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences, 4: 7-18.
Soni, M., Burdock, G., Preuss, H., Stohs, S., Ohia, S. and Bagchi, D. (2004) Safety assessment of (−)-hydroxycitric acid and Super CitriMax®, anda novel calcium/potassium salt. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 42: 1513-1529.
Spadafranca, A., Rinelli, S., Riva, A., Morazzoni, P., Magni, P., Bertoli, S., Battezzati, A. (2013). Phaseolus vulgaris extract affects glycometabolic and appetite control in healthy human subjects. British Journal of Nutrition, 109: 1789-1795.
Sugatani, J., Osabe, M., Wada, T., Yamakawa, K., Yamazaki, Y., Takahashi, T. and Miwa, M. (2008). Comparison of enzymatically synthesized inulin, resistant maltodextrin and clofibrate effects on biomarkers of metabolic disease in rats fed a high-fat and high-sucrose (cafeteria) diet. European journal of nutrition, 47：192-200.
Takahashi, S., Sakai, J., Fujino, T., Hattori, H., Zenimaru, Y., Suzuki, J., Miyamori, I. and Yamamoto, T. T. (2004) The very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) receptor: characterization and functions as a peripheral lipoprotein receptor. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis: 200-208.
Takahashi, S., Suzuki, J., Kohno, M., Oida, K., Tamai, T., Miyabo, S., Yamamoto, T. and Nakai, T. (1995) Enhancement of the binding of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins to the very low density lipoprotein receptor by apolipoprotein E and lipoprotein lipase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270: 15747-15754.
Takehisa, F. and Suzuki, Y. (1990) Effect of guar gum and cholestyramine on plasma lipoprotein cholesterol in rats. Journal of Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science, 43: 269-274.
Tashiro, M. and Kato, M. (1999) Effect of administration of indigestible dextrin prepared from corn starch on glucose tolerance in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Journal of Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science.
Thom, E. (2000) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a new weight-reducing agent of natural origin. Journal of International Medical Research, 28: 229-233.
Tokunaga, K. and Matsuoka, A. (1999) Effects of a Food for Specified Health Use (FOSHU) which contains indigestible dextrin as an effective ingredient on glucose and lipid metabolism. Journal of Diabetes Society, 61-65.
Tormo, M. A., Gil-Exojo, I., de Tejada, A. R., and Campillo, J. E. (2004). Hypoglycaemic and anorexigenic activities of an α-amylase inhibitor from white kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in Wistar rats. British journal of nutrition, 92(05), 785-790.
Trayhurn, P. and Beattie, J. H. (2001) Physiological role of adipose tissue: white adipose tissue as an endocrine and secretory organ. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 60: 329-339.
Tsuji, K. and Gordon, D. T. (1998) Energy value of a mixed glycosidic linked dextrin determined in rats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46: 2253-2259.
Turley, S. D., Daggy, B. P. and Dietschy, J. M. (1991) Cholesterol-lowering action of psyllium mucilloid in the hamster: sites and possible mechanisms of action. Metabolism, 40: 1063-1073.
Udani, J., Hardy, M. and Madsen, D. C. (2004) Blocking carbohydrate absorption and weight loss: a clinical trial using Phase 2™ brand proprietary fractionated white bean extract. Alternative Medicine Review, 9: 63-69.
Udani, J. and Singh, B. B. (2007) Blocking carbohydrate absorption and weight loss: a clinical trial using a proprietary fractionated white bean extract. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 13: 32.
Udani, J. K., Singh, B. B., Barrett, M. L.and Preuss, H. G. (2009) Lowering the glycemic index of white bread using a white bean extract. Nutrition Journal, 8: 1-5.
Vinson, J. A., Al Kharrat, H.and Shuta, D. (2009) Investigation of an amylase inhibitor on human glucose absorption after starch consumption. The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2: 88-91.
Vuksan, V., Jenkins, D., Spadafora, P., Sievenpiper, J. L., Owen, R., Vidgen, E. and Bruce, T. C. (1999) Konjac-mannan (glucomannan) improves glycemia and other associated risk factors for coronary heart disease in type 2 diabetes. A randomized controlled metabolic trial. Diabetes Care, 22: 913-919.
Wakabayashi, S., Satouchi, M., Nogami, Y., Ohkuma, K. and Matsuoka, A. (1991) Effect of indigestible dextrin on cholesterol metabolism in rat. Journal of Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science 44.
Wakabayashi, S. (1992) The effects of indigestible dextrin on sugar tolerance: I. Studies on digestion-absorption and sugar tolerance. Nihon Naibunpi Gakkai Zasshi, 68: 623-635.
Wakabayashi, S., Ueda, Y. and Matsuoka, A. (1993) Effects of indigestible dextrin on blood glucose and insulin levels after various sugar loads in rats. Journal of Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science 46.
Wickelgren, I. (1998) Obesity: How big a problem Science 280: 1364-1367.
World Health Organizaton (2004) BMI classification. Global database on body mass index.Retrieves May 15, 2004 from http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp?introPage=intro_3.html.
World Health Organizaton (2005) The World Health Organizaton warns of the rising threat of heart disease and stroke as overwight and obesity rapidly increase. Retrieves May 11, 2014 from http://apps.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr44/en/.
World Health Organizaton (2015) Obesity and overweight. Retrieves August 17, 2015 from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/
Yamamoto, T., Takahashi, S., Sakai, J., Kawarabayasi, Y. (1993) The very low density lipoprotein receptor A second lipoprotein receptor that may mediate uptake of fatty acids into muscle and fat cells. Trends Cardiovasc Med 3: 144-148.
Yamamoto, T., Yamamoto, K., Fukuhara, Y., Fukui, T., Kishimoto, Y., Okuma, K. and Yamamoto, T. (2007) Effect of indigestible dextrin on visceral fat accumulation. Journal of Japanese Society for the Study of Obesity, 13: 34-41.
Yuasa, M., Yasue, M., Ikeda, M., Shinoda, Y., Sato, K.and Kondo, A. (2004) The effect of tea beverages containing indigestible dextrin on postprandial blood glucose level after single intake and safety in continuous intake. Journal of Japanese Council Adv Food Ingr Res, 7: 83-93.